Attachment theory and psychoanalytic theory, though differing in certain respects, offer complementary perspectives on human development, relationships, and therapeutic change.
Attachment theory was partly developed as a reaction against certain aspects of psychoanalytic theory. John Bowlby disagreed with the Freudian view that the need for oral gratification and pleasure drives an infant’s relationship with its mother.
Bowlby believed that the attachment between infant and caregiver, usually the mother, is an autonomous developmental need not derived from gratification of physical needs like hunger.
| Attachment Theory | Psychoanalytic Theory | |
|---|---|---|
| Inner working models | Reflect real experiences | Reflect inner conflicts and fantasies |
| Role of sexuality | Not a core focus | Central component |
| Therapeutic relationship | Provides secure base | Source of transference |
| Therapeutic priorities | Vary depending on attachment style | Make unconscious conscious |
| Emphasis | Observable behaviors and relationships | Inner motives and drives |
| Research approach | Empirical studies | Clinical observation |
Real Experiences vs. Inner Representations
Attachment theory emphasizes real interactions with caregivers shape an infant’s attachment. In contrast, traditional psychoanalysis focused more on inner fantasies and conflicts and less on real-world experiences (Riviere, 1927).
In contrast to psychoanalytic theorists like Melanie Klein, who focused on the child’s inner fantasy life, Bowlby (1969) emphasized that real-life events and caregiver behaviors shape the child’s social and emotional development. He reacted against the psychoanalytic view that the actual environment has little impact on the child.
For example, two infants may perceive the same caregiver behavior differently based on differences in their temperament and regulatory capacities. The inner complexity of human psychology means internal working models do not correspond directly to external events in a simple way. The perception of outer reality is filtered through the lens of inner psychic reality.
So, while shaped by external experiences, internal working models reflect an interaction between events and the child’s subjective lens.
Psychoanalysis tended to assume working models directly reflected parenting behaviors. However, child factors shape how parenting is experienced.
Longitudinal research on how temperament interacts with caregiving to impact working models is needed (Vaughn & Bost, 2016).
Linking Attachment and Sexuality
In classical psychoanalytic theory, sexuality is central. Attachment theory focuses on relationships, not sexuality. However, the two are linked in intimate adult relationships, where one’s sexual partner is typically one’s primary attachment figure (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
One way sexuality and attachment may intersect, based on clinical experience, relates to the Oedipus complex. Inadequate resolution of the Oedipal conflict may show up later as difficulty integrating sexual and loving feelings towards the same person.
This can undermine intimate relationships. There may be a link between insecure early attachment and a conflictual Oedipal resolution. Secure early attachment may pave the way for successful Oedipal resolution.
Unresolved Oedipal issues may hamper secure attachment in adulthood if individuals cannot integrate sexual and caring feelings toward the same person (Blass & Blatt, 1990).
Psychoanalysts propose the Oedipal period generates pathology only when parents are overly hostile or seductive (Kohut, 1977).
If true, early security would support Oedipal resolution, while early insecurity would hinder it. Longitudinal research on associations between infant attachment, Oedipal development, and adult attachment is needed (Steele, 1991).
These critical developmental questions require longitudinal investigation (Target & Fonagy, 2002).
- How might attachment security versus insecurity interact with the unfolding of the Oedipal phase?
- Does early security pave the way for successful Oedipal resolution, and early insecurity generate later struggles merging caring and sexual feelings?
Repetition of Maladaptive Patterns
Both theories seek to explain why people repeat dysfunctional relationships.
Attachment research reveals insecure children elicit less positive responses from others, likely due to maladaptive behaviors, confirming negative expectations (Jacobson & Wille, 1986).
Psychoanalysis proposes unconscious loyalty to early figures compels repetitively recreating childhood relationships, even painful ones (Fairbairn, 1952).
Attachment theory does not focus on this emotional devotion factor. However, understanding internal working models and ties to early figures helps explain the tenacity of maladaptive patterns (Cassidy & Berlin, 1994).
Fairbairn highlighted that lifting repression is easier than relinquishing devotion to early figures (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983).
Change may feel threatening, like betraying one’s past. Even misery can seem preferable to abandoning old attachments (Eagle, 1997).
Attachment research reveals how behaviors elicit responses that confirm internal models. However, the notion of unconscious loyalty to early figures provides insight into why change is so difficult. Integrating these perspectives furthers our understanding.
The causes of repeating unhealthy relationship patterns also show similarities and differences between the two theories. The internal working model concept in attachment theory is similar to the notion of transference in psychoanalysis.
Intergenerational Transmission
Adults’ attachment styles predict their children’s styles, suggesting intergenerational transmission (Main & Goldwyn, 1984).
Attachment researchers have found that a parent’s attachment style, as assessed in the Adult Attachment Interview, predicts an infant’s attachment style. Mothers who have made sense of early attachment experiences are more likely to have securely attached infants.
Psychoanalytic theorists emphasized how unresolved conflicts from the past get repeated across generations. Attachment research provides empirical evidence for this claim. A parent’s capacity to reflect on attachment experiences may protect against simply reenacting the past, enhancing resilience (Fonagy et al., 1995).
Psychoanalysis long asserted, “those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” Attachment research now empirically confirms reflecting on early experiences prevents repeating them (Eagle, 1997).
Mothers with high reflective functioning are far more likely to have secure infants, even under stress. Reflection serves a protective, resilience-enhancing function, reducing transmission of insecurity (Slade, 2005).
Longitudinal research tracking how maternal reflective function impacts the attachment relationship over time could further illuminate this protective process (Suchman et al., 2010).
Measuring Attachment Change
Can insecure attachment be transformed into security in adulthood? More longitudinal research is needed, but changes have been documented using the Adult Attachment Interview (Travis et al., 2001).
However, improving narrative coherence in therapy may not directly create attachment security. Assessing relationship perceptions, expectations, and behaviors before and after interventions can better capture security shifts (Johnson et al., 2015).
Rather than dramatic transformation, bolstering reflective capacities and earning modest relationship gains may be more realistic therapeutic goals. However, directly measuring attachment constructs could clarify what is possible (Daniel, 2006).
Attachment Narratives and Security
The Adult Attachment Interview assesses adults’ attachment status through the coherence and plausibility of their narratives about early experiences. However, narrative coherence does not necessarily reflect attachment security. It may simply show a capacity to reflect on experience (Crowell et al., 1996).
Rather, coherent narratives indicate reflective ability, regardless of attachment status (Fonagy et al., 1995). Improving narrative coherence in therapy may not translate to enhanced attachment security.
Psychoanalytic theories see therapeutic change in creating new, more coherent narratives. But change in narratives may not always signify a deeper change in how people relate. The narrative focus could also clash with people’s goals in therapy to resolve symptoms and conflicts, not construct stories.
More research on links between narrative changes and relationship improvements is needed. Narratives may only relate indirectly to core therapeutic gains (Crits-Christoph et al., 1988).
Are coherent narratives simply a byproduct of alleviating distress and improving relationships? Or does gaining insight into one’s relational models directly foster security?
Carefully tracking narrative, insight, reflective capacity, and attachment security throughout therapy could elucidate these connections (Levy et al., 2006).
The Therapeutic Relationship as a Secure Base
Attachment theory’s concepts align well with psychoanalytic views of therapy. Providing a secure base fosters exploration of inner conflicts and makes insights less threatening.
Different attachment styles may require different therapeutic approaches. Avoidant individuals may need help accessing suppressed attachment feelings. However, for preoccupied patients with intense attachment anxiety, the therapeutic relationship itself soothes anxiety and provides security.
Attachment theory helps resolve the psychoanalytic debate between insight vs. the therapy relationship (Holmes, 2001).
The therapeutic relationship serves as a secure base for exploring anxiety-provoking content (Mallinckrodt, 2010). Reflective capacities may strengthen through a strong bond (Wallin, 2007).
The relationship may be especially crucial for preoccupied clients with emotion regulation difficulties. For dismissive clients, uncovering suppressed attachment needs may be key (Levy et al., 2011). Clients’ attachment styles should guide therapeutic priorities (Padykula & Conklin, 2010).
But how exactly does the therapeutic relationship interact with insight? The therapy relationship likely enables clients to confront warded-off content. Research tracking how the alliance facilitates exploring anxiety-provoking issues could clarify this process (Marmarosh et al., 2009).
Treating Insecure Attachment Patterns
For dismissing clients, lifting defenses against attachment feelings is often the primary goal (Bowlby, 1980). For preoccupied clients, tolerating aloneness and relinquishing ties to past figures may be more central (West & Keller, 1994).
Kernberg (1984) also emphasizes focusing on negative transference to help borderline clients mourn lost relationships. The therapeutic relationship provides an emotional haven while dismantling the idealization of past figures.
Carefully assessing clients’ attachment strategies can inform therapeutic priorities. However, research on tailored interventions for specific attachment styles is still emerging (Levy et al., 2018).
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969). Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40(4), 969-1025. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127008
Berant, E., & Obegi, J. H. (2009). Attachment-informed psychotherapy research with adults. In J. H. Obegi & E. Berant (Eds.), Attachment theory and research in clinical work with adults (pp. 461–469). The Guilford Press.
Blass, R. B., & Blatt, S. J. (1990). Attachment and separateness. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 45(1), 107-127. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1990.11822568
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss. Basic Books.
Cassidy, J., & Berlin, L. J. (1994). The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development, 65(4), 971–991. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131298
Crits-Christoph, P., Cooper, A., & Luborsky, L. (1988). The accuracy of therapists’ interpretations and the outcome of dynamic psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(4), 490-495. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.4.490
Crowell, J. A., Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (2016). Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications (pp. 599–634). The Guilford Press.
Daniel, S. I. (2006). Adult attachment patterns and individual psychotherapy: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(8), 968-984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.02.001
Eagle, M. (1997). Attachment and psychoanalysis. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 70(3), 217-229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1997.tb01901.x
Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). Psychoanalytic studies of the personality. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Fonagy, P. (2018). Attachment theory and psychoanalysis. Routledge.
Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Leigh, T., Kennedy, R., Mattoon, G., & Target, M. (1995). Attachment, the reflective self, and borderline states: The predictive specificity of the adult attachment interview and pathological emotional development. In S. Goldberg, R. Muir, & J. Kerr (Eds.), Attachment theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives (pp. 233-278). Analytic Press, Inc.
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 123-246). Hogarth Press.
Greenberg, J. R., & Mitchell, S. A. (1983). Object relations in psychoanalytic theory. Harvard University Press.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511
Holmes, J. (2001). The search for the secure base: Attachment theory and psychotherapy. Brunner-Routledge.
Jacobson, J. L., & Wille, D. E. (1986). The influence of attachment pattern on developmental changes in peer interaction from the toddler to the preschool period. Child Development, 57(2), 338–347. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130608
Johnson, S. M., Moser, M. B., Beckes, L., Smith, A., Dalgleish, T., Halchuk, R., Hasselmo, K., Greenman, P. S., Merali, Z., & Coan, J. A. (2013). Soothing the threatened brain: Leveraging contact comfort with emotionally focused therapy. PLOS ONE, 8(11), e79314. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079314
Kernberg, O. (1984). Severe personality disorders: Psychotherapeutic strategies. Yale University Press.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. International Universities Press.
Levy, K. N., & Blatt, S. J. (1999). Attachment theory and psychoanalysis: Further differentiation within insecure attachment patterns. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 19(4), 541-575.
Levy, K. N., Ellison, W. D., Scott, L. N., & Bernecker, S. L. (2011). Attachment style. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Evidence-based responsiveness (2nd ed., pp. 377-401). Oxford University Press.
Levy, K. N., Kivity, Y., Johnson, B. N., & Gooch, C. V. (2018). Adult attachment as a predictor and moderator of psychotherapy outcome: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(11), 1996-2013. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22685
Levy, R. A., Ablon, J. S., & Kächele, H. (2012). Psychodynamic psychotherapy research: Evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence. Springer Science & Business Media.
Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother’s representation of her own experience: Implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse & Neglect, 8(2), 203-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(84)90009-7
Mallinckrodt, B. (2010). The psychotherapy relationship as attachment: Evidence and implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(2), 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407509360905
Marmarosh, C. L., Gelso, C. J., Markin, R. D., Majors, R., Mallery, C., & Choi, J. (2009). The real relationship in psychotherapy: Relationships to adult attachments, working alliance, transference, and therapy outcome. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 337–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015169
Padykula, N. L., & Conklin, P. (2010). The self regulation model of attachment trauma and addiction. Clinical Social Work Journal, 38(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-009-0204-6
Riviere, J. (1927). Contribution to the symposium on child analysis. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 8, 370-377.
Slade, A. (2005). Parental reflective functioning: An introduction. Attachment & Human Development, 7(3), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730500245906
Steele, H. (1991). Intergenerational patterns of attachment: Maternal representations during pregnancy and subsequent infant-mother attachments. Child Development, 62(5), 910-924. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131141
Suchman, N., DeCoste, C., Leigh, D., & Borelli, J. (2010). Reflective functioning in mothers with drug use disorders: Implications for dyadic interactions with infants and toddlers. Attachment & Human Development, 12(6), 567-585. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2010.501988
Target, M., & Fonagy, P. (2002). Fathers in modern psychoanalysis and in society: The role of the father and child development. In J. Trowell & A. Etchegoyen (Eds.), The importance of fathers: A psychoanalytic re-evaluation (pp. 45-66). Taylor & Francis.
Travis, L. A., Bliwise, N. G., Binder, J. L., & Horne-Moyer, H. L. (2001). Changes in clients’ attachment styles over the course of time-limited dynamic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38(2), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.38.2.149
Vaughn, B. E., & Bost, K. K. (2016). Attachment and temperament as intersecting developmental products and interacting developmental contexts throughout infancy and childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 202-222). The Guilford Press.
Wallin, D. J. (2007). Attachment in psychotherapy. Guilford Press.
West, M., & Keller, A. (1994). Psychotherapy strategies for insecure attachment in personality disorders. In M. B. Sperling & W. H. Berman (Eds.), Attachment in adults: Clinical and developmental perspectives (pp. 308-328). The Guilford Press.
