Deviance in Sociology: Definition, Theories & Examples

Social Strain Typology (Robert K. Merton)

The social strain typology is a theory of deviance that was developed by sociologist Robert K. Merton. The theory suggests that there are four types of deviant behavior: subcultural, serial, situational, and cultural.

Merton”s theory is based on the idea that there is a tension between goals and means in society. Goals are the things that people want to achieve, such as wealth or success. Means are the ways in which people go about achieving these goals, such as working hard or getting an education.

When people cannot achieve their goals through legitimate means, they may turn to deviant behavior in order to get what they want. For example, someone who wants to be wealthy but cannot legitimately earn enough money may turn to theft or robbery.

The social strain typology is a helpful way of understanding why people engage in deviant behavior. It also helps to explain why some forms of deviance are more common than others.

For example, subcultural deviance is more likely to occur in poor neighborhoods where legitimate means of achieving goals are limited. Serial deviance is more likely to occur in individuals who have a history of engaging in deviant behavior.

And situational deviance is more likely to occur when people find themselves in situations where they are tempted to break the rules.

Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to promote stability and order.

The theory is based on the idea that societies are organized in a way that allows them to meet the needs of their members.

Durkheim suggested that modern industrial societies were consequently characterized by moral confusion or ‘anomie ’ – some members of society were more likely to challenge and reject shared values and norms of behavior and this ‘normlessness’ often resulted in crime and deviance.

The functionalist perspective argues that deviant behavior serves a positive function for society by providing a safety valve for people who cannot cope with the demands of everyday life.

For example, people who engage in minor deviant behaviors, like rudeness or angry outbursts, may be less likely to commit more serious crimes, such as murder or rape (Parsons, 1985).

The functionalist perspective also argues that deviant behavior can lead to social change. For example, people who challenge the status quo and push boundaries may help to bring about positive changes, such as increased equality or improved working conditions.

Gandhi, for example,  is often credited with helping to end British rule in India through his deviant behavior of leading peaceful protests and civil disobedience.

The public punishment of criminals also reinforces social conformity by reminding members of society about what counts as acceptable and unacceptable behavior. In other words, it functions to socially control society by reinforcing the rules.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theory is a sociological theory that views society as a system of power relationships that are in conflict with one another. The theory is based on the idea that social order is maintained through coercion and force, rather than consent or agreement.

Conflict theorists argue that deviant behavior is a result of social inequality. They believe that people who have less power in society are more likely to engage in deviant behavior as a way of challenging the existing order.

For example, people who are poor or members of minority groups may turn to crime as a way to get the resources they need to survive (Bartos & Wehr, 2002).

This theory originates from the work of Karl Marx, who argued that social conflict is a necessary part of economic change. Marx believed that capitalism would eventually lead to a revolution in which the working class would overthrow the ruling class and establish a more egalitarian society.

While conflict theory has its origins in Marxism, it has been adapted and expanded by other sociologists, such as Max Weber and Randall Collins.

Conflict theory is now used to explain a wide variety of social phenomena, including crime, violence, and discrimination (Bartos & Wehr, 2002).

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory is a sociological theory that views deviance as a result of the way society labels people. The theory is based on the idea that people who are labeled as deviant are more likely to engage in deviant behavior.

Lemert was one of the first to define the concept of primary and secondary deviance (1951). Primary deviance is deviant acts that occur without labels put on the person commiting the act.

For example, a teenager who drinks alcohol socially at a party and is caught, but only gently reprimanded by their parents, has committed primary deviance.

Secondary deviance, meanwhile, is a result of the labels that are put onn someone for committing deviant acts.

A person moves from primary deviance (the thing that gets him/her labeled in the first place) to secondary deviance (a deviant identity or career).

The importance of the distinction between primary and secondary deviance is that everyone commits primary deviance acts from time to time, with few social consequences.

Labeling theory argues that the act of labeling someone as deviant causes them to be seen as different from others. This difference can lead to discrimination and social exclusion, which can in turn lead to further deviant behavior.

For example, someone who is labeled as a criminal may have difficulty finding a job or housing. As a result, they may turn to crime in order to make ends meet.

Or, someone who is labeled as mentally ill may be excluded from social activities and have difficulty making friends. This isolation can lead to further mental health problems (Becker, 2018).

Labeling theory has been used to explain a wide variety of deviant behaviors, including crime, mental illness, and drug use. The theory has been criticized for its lack of empirical evidence, but it remains an influential perspective in sociology.