Ethnography In Qualitative Research

What is Ethnography?

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that emphasizes studying what people do and say in particular contexts. Ethnographers typically spend considerable time observing and interacting with a social group to understand how the group develops cultural constructions and relations.

Ethnography is used anthropology and other social sciences to systematically study people and cultures.

The goal of ethnography is to explore cultural phenomena from the perspective of the subjects being studied.

They aim to uncover the reasons for particular behaviors and practices within a specific cultural context. For example, an ethnographic study might examine why certain communities use specific child-rearing techniques or how cultural values influence emotional expression.

This often involves immersing oneself in a community or organization to observe their behaviors and interactions up close.

Ethnographic research is often open-ended and exploratory. Researchers may enter the field with a research question in mind, but they remain open to unexpected findings and allow the social order of the community to guide their observations.

This openness to discovery helps researchers develop a deeper understanding of the cultural phenomena they study.

How does an ethnographic perspective view psychological knowledge?

Ethnography considers the social context of psychological phenomena to be critical to the field of psychology.

An ethnographic perspective argues that psychological knowledge is not complete unless it examines how communal practices, economic and political structures, shared values, histories, aspirations, and other life dimensions shape human experiences.

The interaction of identity and self-definition is dynamic and shaped by an individual’s social contexts.

Examples

Ethnography is primarily used in the following situations:

1. Cultural anthropology: Ethnography is the primary research method used by cultural anthropologists to study and understand different societies and cultures around the world.
   
   Margaret Mead conducted ethnographic research among the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli people of New Guinea, which resulted in her book Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935).
   
   In this work, she explored the ways in which gender roles and personality traits varied across cultures.
2. Sociology: Ethnographic methods are used in sociology to study subcultures, communities, and social groups within a larger society, such as urban neighborhoods, religious communities, or professional groups.
   
   Paul Willis conducted an ethnographic study of working-class youth culture, presented in his work Learning to Labor. Willis sought to understand why working-class youth often ended up in working-class jobs.
   
   His research involved a series of interviews and observations, focusing on a school setting to gain insight into the connection between working-class backgrounds and career trajectories.
   
   Willis concluded that working-class children often develop a counter-school culture, characterized by opposition to academics and authority figures.
3. Education: Ethnography is used in educational research to study classroom dynamics, student-teacher interactions, and the impact of cultural factors on learning.
4. Healthcare: Ethnography is used in healthcare research to study patient experiences, healthcare provider practices, and the cultural factors that influence health behaviors and outcomes.
5. Social work: Ethnographic research helps social workers understand the lived experiences of marginalized or vulnerable populations, informing the development of more effective interventions and support services.
6. Policy and development: Ethnography is used in policy research and international development to assess the impact of policies and programs on local communities and to ensure that development initiatives are culturally appropriate and sustainable.

What distinguishes ethnography from other qualitative methods?

While ethnography shares commonalities with other qualitative methods, these distinctions highlight its unique capacity to provide rich, nuanced insights into the complexities of human behavior and culture.

1. Immersive Fieldwork: Unlike other qualitative methods that might rely solely on interviews or surveys, ethnography necessitates the researcher to be directly involved in the community or group they are studying, often for extended periods. This immersive approach allows for a depth of understanding unattainable through less participatory methods.
2. Unstructured Data Collection: Ethnographers typically begin their research with a more exploratory approach rather than testing predetermined hypotheses. They embrace unstructured data collection, allowing patterns and theories to emerge from their observations and interactions rather than imposing pre-existing frameworks.
3. Emphasis on Observation Over Interviews: Although interviews are a common tool in ethnographic research, the core of the method lies in observing what people do rather than solely relying on what they say. This focus on action allows ethnographers to identify discrepancies between stated beliefs and actual practices, providing a richer understanding of the complexities within a social group.
4. Interpretative and Reflexive Analysis: Ethnographers acknowledge the inherent subjectivity involved in interpreting social phenomena. They embrace reflexivity, acknowledging that their own backgrounds and perspectives shape how they observe and interpret data.
5. Focus on Process, Meaning, and Place: Ethnography seeks to uncover the dynamic processes, shared meanings, and influence of place that shape social life. It investigates how individuals make sense of their world and how these understandings influence their actions and interactions within specific geographical and social contexts.
6. Thick description: Thick description, a concept by Geertz, is an ethnographer’s in-depth and nuanced representation of social life that goes beyond simple observation, exploring the meanings and motivations behind behaviors. This nuanced understanding illustrates how ethnographers use thick description to reveal what is “at stake” in people’s lives.

Gaining Access to a Community for Ethnographic Research

Negotiating access to a community for research can be a delicate process, requiring sensitivity and understanding of local social practices.

There is no one-size-fits-all approach; instead, researchers must adapt their approach to the specific community and setting they wish to study.

• Initial Contact: Start by identifying potential participants and settings relevant to the research question. Initial contact can be made remotely through emails, calls, or social connections. Reaching out to researchers who have previously worked in the field can be beneficial. Physical visits to the field can also be helpful in the initial stages.
• Building Trust and Understanding Local Norms: Establishing trust is paramount in ethnographic research. Researchers should prioritize initiating contact in a manner that aligns with the community’s social practices. For example, directly emailing community centers in a culture that values personal introductions might be ineffective. Introducing the researcher through a trusted community member, like a friend or neighbor, can foster trust and facilitate acceptance. Researchers should remain mindful of their position in relation to the community’s cultural norms and how their presence might be perceived.
• Addressing Challenges and Maintaining Access: Unexpected challenges and setbacks are common in ethnographic research. Embracing methodological agility allows researchers to adapt their methods to the contingencies of the field site and view setbacks as opportunities for refining research design. Flexibility is key, and researchers should be open to exploring alternative settings or communities if access to the initial choice proves difficult.
• Ethical Considerations and Reciprocity: Ethnographic research involves a responsibility to the community being studied. Ethnographers must be aware of the power dynamics inherent in research and strive to minimize harm by respecting participants’ privacy and cultural norms. Researchers should consider how their work can benefit the community, for instance, by offering insights, providing resources, or advocating for positive change.

Working with Informants in Ethnography

Informants are crucial to ethnographic research, acting as primary points of contact and facilitating the researcher’s understanding of the group being studied.

Identifying the right informants is vital, and a “friend-of-a-friend” approach, leveraging existing social networks, can be advantageous.

This method can grant access to otherwise inaccessible aspects of social life and provide a unique, embedded perspective on the community’s language use and attitudes.

However, over-reliance on a single informant can skew the researcher’s perspective, potentially leading to biased or unrepresentative findings.

An informant may consciously or unconsciously shape their interactions with the researcher to align with what they believe is expected, hindering the collection of spontaneous and authentic data.

Therefore, it’s essential to cultivate relationships with a diverse range of informants within the community. This approach helps ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the group’s dynamics and mitigates the risk of individual bias influencing the research findings.

While the sources don’t provide detailed steps on managing relationships with multiple informants, they emphasize the importance of ethical considerations, open communication, and building trust throughout the research process.

Data Sources in Ethnographic Research

Ethnographers often employ a multi-method approach, combining data from these various sources to create a rich and comprehensive understanding of the group being studied.

They may also utilize audio and video recordings to capture interactions and analyze nonverbal communication.

The choice of specific data collection methods depends on factors like the research question, available resources, and ethical considerations

• Participant observation involves the researcher immersing themselves in the daily life of a community to gain an understanding of the actions, activities, rituals, routines, and daily practices. The ethnographer might participate in activities to learn through experience or observe from the sidelines. There are varying levels of participation in this method. Some researchers fully adopt the social role they are studying, like a factory worker or police officer, to better understand the group’s worldview. Others maintain a more detached relationship, observing from the sidelines, while acknowledging that some interaction is inevitable.
• Field notes are a primary data source, meticulously recording observations, conversations, and preliminary analyses made during immersion in the research setting3.
• Interviews play a significant role, providing insights into individuals’ perspectives and experiences within the group. Interviews provide a source of witness accounts about settings and events in the social world that the ethnographer may or may not have been able to observe.
• Documents, both official and personal, can offer valuable contextual information and supplement observational data

When conducting ethnographic research, researchers should be mindful of their ontological and epistemological stances, their research questions, and the context of their research.

Ethnographers must also consider ethical implications, the type of data they are collecting, and how their findings will be used.

What are the limitations of solely relying on interviews in ethnographic research?

While interviews are a common element of ethnographic research, relying on them solely as a source of data has some significant limitations.

• Discrepancies Between Words and Actions: Interviews primarily capture what people say about their lives, beliefs, and practices. However, what people say and what they actually do can differ. Observing participants in their natural environment can reveal these discrepancies and provide a more complete understanding of their lived experiences.
• Influence of Interviewer and Context: The interview itself is a constructed situation that can influence participants’ responses. Participants may modify their language or opinions to align with perceived expectations or power dynamics, particularly when discussing sensitive topics.
• Limited Insight into Meaning-Making: While interviews can provide information about perspectives and beliefs, they may not fully capture the subtle ways cultural meanings are embedded in everyday practices and interactions. Ethnographic observation allows researchers to witness these meaning-making processes firsthand.
• Difficulty in Capturing Complexity: Interviews, especially structured ones, often rely on pre-determined questions and response categories. This approach can oversimplify complex cultural phenomena and miss nuances that emerge through observation of natural interactions.

Supplementing Interviews with Observation

To mitigate these limitations, sources emphasize the importance of combining interviews with other ethnographic methods, primarily participant observation.

• Observing participants in their natural environment provides a more holistic and nuanced understanding of their practices, interactions, and the cultural meanings embedded within them.
• This immersive approach allows researchers to go beyond self-reported accounts and gain insights that might not be revealed through interviews alone.

Skills Required for Ethnographic Studies

• High Degree of Interpretative Agility: Understanding the intricacies of ethnographic studies necessitates a high degree of interpretative agility to make sense of the diverse range of issues and facts gathered.
• Cultural Sensitivity: Sensitivity towards the culture, values, and norms of the social setting is paramount for conducting ethical and meaningful research. This is essential for building trust and rapport with research participants and understanding their perspectives.
• Reflexivity: Ethnographers must be self-aware and reflective about their own positionality, biases, and impact on the research process, and be transparent about these factors in their writing.

The Role of Reflexivity in Ethnography

Reflexivity in ethnographic writing involves thoughtfully examining how the researcher’s background, beliefs, and position influence their observations, interpretations, and the final ethnographic account.

It’s a crucial aspect of producing responsible and insightful ethnographic work.

• Acknowledging Subjectivity: Ethnographers who practice reflexivity understand that their accounts are not objective truths, but rather interpretations shaped by their own experiences and perspectives. They acknowledge that other researchers, with different backgrounds and positions, might interpret the same data differently.
• Positioning the Researcher: Reflexivity encourages ethnographers to explicitly consider and articulate how their personal and cultural background, as well as their social position relative to the community being studied, might influence their understanding of the observed phenomena. This includes acknowledging any preconceived notions or biases they bring to the research.
• Examining Power Dynamics: Ethnographic research often involves power imbalances between the researcher and the researched, especially when studying marginalized groups. Reflexivity encourages researchers to critically examine these power dynamics and to consider how their work might perpetuate or challenge existing inequalities. This involves being transparent about the research process and engaging in ethical practices that protect participants.
• Enhancing the Validity of Findings: Ultimately, reflexivity aims to strengthen the ethnographic account by making the researcher’s interpretive process more transparent and by providing a more nuanced and accountable representation of the community being studied. This can involve explicitly discussing the researcher’s positionality and reflecting on how their presence might have influenced the data collected.

It is important to note that while reflexivity is widely recognized as crucial in ethnography, there are different understandings of its application and implications.

Some argue for a more radical approach that emphasizes the subjective nature of ethnographic knowledge and the limitations of representation.

Others advocate for a more moderate stance that acknowledges the importance of reflexivity while still striving for rigorous and insightful accounts of social reality.

Importance of Local Context in Ethnography

Understanding the local context is crucial for ethnographic research because it allows researchers to accurately interpret the meanings behind people’s actions and perspectives within their specific social and cultural environment.

Ethnography examines the intricate relationships between human agency and the structures of society within the everyday experiences of a particular place. This method aims to understand the processes and meanings that underpin social life, recognizing that these processes and meanings vary across locations.

Here’s why local context is so important for ethnographic research:

• Connecting Macro and Micro Levels of Analysis: Ethnography aims to reveal the link between large-scale societal structures and the everyday experiences of individuals. The local context provides the specific setting where these connections are made visible and understandable. For instance, studying violence statistically cannot capture the contextual factors that lead to it, but ethnographic research can uncover the specific social dynamics and meanings within particular places that contribute to such behavior.
• Uncovering Meaning Systems: The meanings people assign to events and actions are often deeply embedded within their local culture and not always explicitly stated. Ethnographers, by immersing themselves in the local context, can gradually understand these meaning systems through prolonged observation, interaction, and analysis of daily practices.
• Context-Sensitivity of Behavior: People’s actions and accounts of their actions are highly context-dependent, meaning they can vary significantly across different settings. Ethnographic research acknowledges this by emphasizing firsthand observation and understanding of the local context to ensure accurate interpretation of behavior and perspectives.
• Avoiding Misinterpretation: Without a deep understanding of the local context, researchers risk misinterpreting observations or imposing their own cultural biases on the data. Immersing oneself in the local context allows ethnographers to develop cultural competence and sensitivity, which helps them arrive at more accurate and insightful interpretations of the group’s actions and beliefs.

In essence, understanding the local context is not just about knowing where something occurs, but about comprehending the intricate web of cultural meanings, social dynamics, and historical factors that shape people’s lives and experiences in that specific location.

This understanding is fundamental to the ethnographic approach and its ability to generate meaningful insights into human behavior and social life.

Challenges in Conducting Ethnographic Research

Ethnography, a qualitative research method focusing on the study of people and cultures, presents a unique set of challenges for researchers:

• Time Commitment: Ethnography is a time-consuming endeavor. Researchers need to spend significant time immersed in the community or organization they are studying to build relationships, observe interactions, and gain a deep understanding of the culture. This long-term immersion requires careful planning and can be personally demanding. For instance, some research may necessitate a “focused” or “mini” ethnography lasting a few weeks or months, while others require a year or more.
• Observer Bias: Ethnographers are at risk of introducing their own biases into the research. Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation, and it can be difficult to remain objective when analyzing a group in which the researcher is deeply involved. The researcher’s background, beliefs, and experiences can influence their observations and interpretations.
• Representing Culture: Writing about other people is inherently complicated, and ethnographers must consider how to describe people in a manner that is informative, honest, sensitive, and ethical.
• Ethical Issues: Recognize that ethnographers often hold a position of power relative to the communities they study, particularly when working with marginalized groups. Ensure participants are volunteers who understand the study’s purpose and their right to withdraw.
• Gaining Access: Getting access to a community or organization for research can be a delicate process. Researchers need to establish trust with gatekeepers and negotiate their role within the community. This can be particularly difficult in settings that are closed or suspicious of outsiders. For instance, researchers may face resistance from organizations concerned about negative publicity stemming from the study’s findings.
• Data Analysis and Interpretation: Ethnographic research often generates large amounts of data in various forms, such as field notes, interviews, and documents. Analyzing this data and developing meaningful interpretations can be challenging and time-consuming. Researchers must develop systematic ways to manage, analyze, and interpret their data while staying true to the experiences and perspectives of the participants.
• Generalizability: The findings of ethnographic research, which typically focuses on a specific case or setting, can be challenging to generalize to other populations or contexts. The in-depth, context-specific nature of ethnographic research, while a strength in understanding a particular group, poses challenges for drawing broader conclusions about human behavior and social phenomena.
• External Pressures: Ethnographers may face pressure from funding agencies or institutions to conduct research that aligns with specific agendas or produces immediate, tangible outcomes. This pressure can create ethical dilemmas and compromise the integrity of the research. For example, ethnography may be perceived as an inefficient research method due to its reliance on long-term engagement.

Strategies for Ethical Representation

Any ethnographic account of another cultural group risks engaging in what Edward Said (1978) called the “politics of othering,” potentially distorting the lives of those being studied in support of “scientific racism and projects of colonial domination and exploitation”.

The ethnographer should chronicle the community’s experiences, including their struggles, aspirations, losses, and stagnation, with compassion

Thick Description

Provide a nuanced perspective on social life, connecting observed behaviors to underlying meanings, emotions, and decision-making strategies, while avoiding simplistic or reductive accounts of complex experiences.

For example, instead of simply stating that Alzheimer’s carries a social stigma, an ethnographer might connect this observation to the community’s beliefs about family and social change.

Respect and Dignity

Represent individuals with respect and dignity, appreciating their values within the context of their lives.

The ethnographer should chronicle the community’s experiences, including their struggles, aspirations, losses, and stagnation, with compassion.

Reflexivity and Collaboration

Acknowledge the historical legacy of ethnography, including its role in colonialism and the potential for exploitative research practices.

Ethnographers should strive for a more equitable and collaborative approach by:

• Recognizing participants as “epistemic agents and interlocutors” who contribute theoretical interpretations, not merely data points2.
• Involving community members in shaping research questions, data analysis, and the dissemination of findings.
• Considering co-authorship with community members

Strengths of Ethnography

• Ethnography offers a nuanced understanding of cultural phenomena by directly observing behaviors and interactions within a specific community or organization. This immersive approach allows researchers to gain firsthand knowledge of shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. Ethnography is particularly useful for studying complex social phenomena like football fans, call center workers, and police officers.
• Flexibility, allowing researchers to adapt their research strategy and direction based on their observations and developing understanding. Rather than aiming to confirm a hypothesis or test a general theory, ethnographic research prioritizes providing a comprehensive and detailed narrative of a specific culture. This open-ended approach enables the exploration of various aspects of the group and setting being studied.
• Ethnographers can uncover authentic information and observe spontaneous dynamics that might not surface through direct questioning. By becoming immersed in the social environment, researchers gain access to a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of the group under study. For example, ethnographers can examine discrepancies between what people say and their actual actions, providing insights that other methodologies might miss.
• Ethnography enables researchers to understand the meanings behind social actions by revealing the knowledge and meaning structures that guide them. Through prolonged engagement and observation, ethnographers gain insight into the cultural systems of meaning that shape individuals’ perceptions and actions. Unlike surveys or interviews with pre-determined questions, ethnography allows for an emergent understanding of the cultural competencies within a social setting.
• Ethnographic research relies on a comprehensive approach to data collection, incorporating observations, conversations, and preliminary analysis through detailed field notes. This rigorous documentation helps ensure the accuracy and representativeness of the findings. Moreover, ethnography goes beyond simply describing behaviors; it strives to provide a structured explanation of the observed phenomena, drawing on the researcher’s direct experiences, intuitions, and relevant theoretical frameworks.

However, it’s important to note that ethnography, while valuable, has limitations. It is a time-consuming method requiring significant planning and careful consideration of ethical issues.

Additionally, maintaining objectivity and minimizing observer bias can be a challenge due to the researcher’s immersive role.

Further Information

• Brewer, J. (2000). Ethnography. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
• Hammersley, M. (2006). Ethnography: problems and prospects. Ethnography and education, 1(1), 3-14.
• Herbert, S. (2000). For ethnography. Progress in human geography, 24(4), 550-568.
• Lew-Levy, S., Reckin, R., Lavi, N., Cristóbal-Azkarate, J., & Ellis-Davies, K. (2017). How do hunter-gatherer children learn subsistence skills? A meta-ethnographic review. Human Nature, 28(4), 367–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12110-017-9302-2
• Mead, M. (1963). Sex and temperament in three primitive societies (Vol. 370). New York: Morrow.
• Said, E. W. (2013). Orientalism reconsidered. In Literature Politics & Theory (pp. 230-249). Routledge.
• Willis, P. (1977). Learning to Labor: How Working-class Kids Get Working-class Jobs. New York: Colombia University Press