In the formal operational stage, children tend to reason more abstractly, systematically, and reflectively. They are more likely to use logic to reason out the possible consequences of each action before carrying it out.
He/she can do mathematical calculations, think creatively, use abstract reasoning, and imagine the outcome of particular actions.
An example of the distinction between concrete and formal operational stages is the answer to the question, “If Kelly is taller than Ali and Ali is taller than Jo, who is tallest?”
This is an example of inferential reasoning, which is the ability to think about things which the child has not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking.
The child who needs to draw a picture or use objects is still in the concrete operational stage, whereas children who can reason the answer in their heads are using formal operational thinking.
Formal Operational Thought
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer questions.
The individual will approach problems in a systematic and organized manner rather than through trial-and-error.
A teenager can consider “what if” scenarios, like imagining the future consequences of climate change based on current trends.
Abstract Thought
Concrete operations are carried out on things, whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Individuals can think about hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience. Abstract thought is important for planning the future.
A student understands and manipulates concepts like justice, love, and freedom without needing concrete examples or experiences. For instance, they can comprehend and discuss a statement such as “Justice is not always fair.”
Scientific Reasoning
An example of formal operational thought could be the cognitive ability to plan and test different solutions to a problem systematically, a process often referred to as “scientific thinking.”
The ability to form hypotheses, conduct experiments, analyze results, and use deductive reasoning is an example of formal operational thought.
A student forms a hypothesis about a science experiment, predicts potential outcomes, systematically tests the hypothesis, and then analyzes the results.
For example, they could hypothesize that increasing sunlight exposure will increase a plant’s rate of growth, design an experiment to test this, and then understand and explain the results.
Metacognition
Adolescents can think about their own thought processes, reflecting on how they learn best or understanding why they might have made a mistake in judgment.
For example, they might realize that they rush decisions when they’re feeling stressed and plan to use stress-reducing techniques before making important decisions in the future.
Testing Formal Operations
Piaget (1970) devised several tests of formal operational thought. One of the simplest was the “third eye problem”. Children were asked where they would put an extra eye, if they could have a third one, and why.
Schaffer (1988) reported that when asked this question, 9-year-olds all suggested that the third eye should be on the forehead. However, 11-year-olds were more inventive, suggesting that a third eye placed on the hand would be useful for seeing round corners.
Formal operational thinking has also been tested experimentally using the pendulum task (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The method involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight, and the strength of the push.
The task was to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum.
Participants can vary the length of the pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute.
To find the correct answer, the participant has to grasp the idea of the experimental method -that is to vary one variable at a time (e.g., trying different lengths with the same weight). A participant who tries different lengths with different weights will likely end up with the wrong answer.
Children in the formal operational stage approached the task systematically, testing one variable (such as varying the string length) at a time to see its effect. However, younger children typically tried out these variations randomly or changed two things simultaneously.
Piaget concluded that the systematic approach indicated that children were thinking logically, in the abstract, and could see the relationships between things. These are the characteristics of the formal operational stage.
Critical Evaluation
Psychologists who have replicated this research, or used a similar problem, have generally found that children cannot complete the task successfully until they are older.
Robert Siegler (1979) gave children a balance beam task in which some discs were placed on either side of the center of balance. The researcher changed the number of discs or moved them along the beam, each time asking the child to predict which way the balance would go.
He studied the answers given by children from five years upwards, concluding that they apply rules which develop in the same sequence as, and thus reflect, Piaget’s findings.
Like Piaget, he found that eventually, the children were able to take into account the interaction between the weight of the discs and the distance from the center, and so successfully predict balance. However, this did not happen until participants were between 13 and 17 years of age.
He concluded that children’s cognitive development is based on acquiring and using rules in increasingly more complex situations, rather than in stages.
Learning Check
Which of the following is/are not an indication of an individual being in the formal operational stage?
-
Mark often struggles with planning for the future. He can’t envision different possible outcomes based on his actions. Which of the following is true about Mark?
a. He is in the Formal Operational stage.
b. He is in the Preoperational stage.
c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage.
d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage. -
Which of the following actions does NOT indicate that Lucy is in the Formal Operational stage?
a. Lucy can think about abstract concepts like justice and fairness.
b. Lucy enjoys debates and discussions where she can express her thoughts.
c. Lucy can only solve problems that are concrete and immediately present.
d. Lucy enjoys conducting experiments to test her hypotheses. -
Sam can play with his friends and imagine what they think about him. However, he can’t conceptualize different outcomes of a hypothetical situation. What stage is Sam likely in?
a. He is in the Formal Operational stage.
b. He is in the Preoperational stage.
c. He is in the Concrete Operational stage.
d. He is in the Sensorimotor stage.
Answers:
- (b) He is in the Preoperational stage.
- (c) Lucy can only solve problems that are concrete and immediately present.
- (c) He is in the Concrete Operational stage.
FAQs
According to Jean Piaget, in what stage do children begin to use abstract thinking processes?
According to Jean Piaget, children begin to use abstract thinking processes in the Formal Operational stage, which typically develops between 12 and adulthood.
In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and hypothetical
reasoning. They no longer rely solely on concrete experiences or objects in their immediate environment for understanding. Instead, they can imagine realities outside their own and consider various possibilities and perspectives.
They can formulate hypotheses, consider potential outcomes, and plan systematic approaches for problem-solving. Additionally, they can understand and manipulate abstract ideas such as moral reasoning, logic, and theoretical concepts in mathematics or science.
Based on Piaget’s theory, what should a teacher provide in the formal operational stage?
Based on Piaget’s theory, a teacher should provide the following for students in the Formal Operational stage:
Abstract Problems and Hypothetical Tasks: Encourage students to think abstractly and solve complex problems. Provide tasks that require logical reasoning, hypothesizing, and the consideration of multiple variables.
Opportunities for Debate and Discussion: Encourage students to express their thoughts and challenge the views of others. This can help them learn to view problems from multiple perspectives.
Experiments: Design lessons to allow students to develop hypotheses and conduct experiments. The scientific method is a valuable tool at this stage.
Real-world Applications: Connect classroom learning to real-world scenarios. This can help students understand the relevance and application of abstract ideas.
Higher-order Questions: Use questions involving analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to improve students’ critical thinking skills.
Guidance in Self-reflection: Encourage students to reflect on their thoughts, emotions, and behavior, which can help them understand their own cognitive processes better.
Moral and Ethical Discussions: As students in this stage begin to think more about abstract concepts such as justice, fairness, and rights, engage them in discussions around moral and ethical issues.
Piaget’s formal operational stage begins around age 11 or 12 and continues throughout adulthood. Does this suggest that once one reaches this level of cognitive development, they plateau? or are there different levels of formal operations?
According to Piaget’s theory, once individuals reach the Formal Operational stage, they have attained the highest level of cognitive development, as defined by his model. However, this does not suggest a cognitive plateau.
Cognitive development is individual and influenced by a range of factors beyond mere biological maturation.
The nature of human cognition is such that there’s always room for refinement, growth, and development throughout adulthood.
Furthermore, individual competence can vary greatly within the Formal Operational stage. For instance, a person might employ formal operational thinking in one area of life (such as their professional specialization) but not others.
Similarly, skills like problem-solving, logical reasoning, and handling abstract concepts can continue to improve with practice and experience.
References
Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). Adolescent thinking.
Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman.
Schaffer, H. R. (1988). Child Psychology: the future. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (eds), Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. NY: Brunner/Mazel.
Siegler, R. S. & Richards, D. (1979). Development of time, speed and distance concepts. Developmental Psychology, 15, 288-298.
