Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It concerns how we take in information from the outside world, and how we make sense of that information.
Cognitive psychology studies mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and make decisions.
Cognitive psychologists try to build cognitive models of the information processing that occurs inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.
Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this:
- Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes.
- The development of better experimental methods.
- Comparison between human and computer processing of information. Using computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with computers and artificial intelligence.
The emphasis of psychology shifted away from the study of conditioned behavior and psychoanalytical notions about the study of the mind, towards the understanding of human information processing using strict and rigorous laboratory investigation.
Summary Table
| Key Features |
|---|
| • Mediation processes • Information processing approach • Reductionism (breaks behavior down) • Nomothetic (studies the group) • Schemas (re: Kohlberg & Piaget) |
| Methodology |
|---|
| • Controlled Experiments • Physical measures (e.g., neuroimaging) • Case studies (cognitive neuroscience) • Behavioral measures (e.g., reaction time) |
| Assumptions |
|---|
| • Psychology should be studied scientifically. • Information received from our senses is processed by the brain, and this processing directs how we behave. • The mind/brain processes information like a computer. We take information in, and then it is subjected to mental processes. There is input, processing, and then output. • Mediational processes (e.g., thinking, memory) occur between stimulus and response. |
| Strengths |
|---|
| • Objective measurement, which can be replicated and peer-reviewed • Real-life applications (e.g., CBT) • Clear predictions that can be can be scientifically tested |
| Limitations |
|---|
| • Reductionist (e.g., ignores biology) • Experiments have low ecological validity • Behaviourism – can’t objectively study unobservable internal behavior |
Theoretical Assumptions
Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response:
The behaviorist approach only studies external observable (stimulus and response) behavior that can be objectively measured.
They believe that internal behavior cannot be studied because we cannot see what happens in a person’s mind (and therefore cannot objectively measure it).
However, cognitive psychologists consider it essential to examine an organism’s mental processes and how these influence behavior.
Cognitive psychology assumes a mediational process occurs between stimulus/input and response/output.
These are mediational processes because they mediate (i.e., go-between) between the stimulus and the response. They come after the stimulus and before the response.
Instead of the simple stimulus-response links proposed by behaviorism, the mediational processes of the organism are essential to understand.
Without this understanding, psychologists cannot have a complete understanding of behavior.
Examples
The mediational (i.e., mental) event could be memory, perception, attention or problem-solving, etc.
- Perception: how we process and interpret sensory information.
- Attention: how we selectively focus on certain aspects of our environment.
- Memory: how we encode, store, and retrieve information.
- Language: how we acquire, comprehend, and produce language.
- Problem-solving and decision-making: how we reason, make judgments, and solve problems.
- Schemas: Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences shape their mental processes.
For example, the cognitive approach suggests that problem gambling results from maladaptive thinking and faulty cognitions, which both result in illogical errors.
Gamblers misjudge the amount of skill involved with ‘chance’ games, so they are likely to participate with the mindset that the odds are in their favour and that they may have a good chance of winning.
Therefore, cognitive psychologists say that if you want to understand behavior, you must understand these mediational processes.
Psychology should be seen as a science:
This assumption is based on the idea that although not directly observable, the mind can be investigated using objective and rigorous methods, similar to how other sciences study natural phenomena.
Controlled experiments
The cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically studied using controlled experiments.
It uses the results of its investigations to make inferences about mental processes.
Cognitive psychology uses highly controlled laboratory experiments to avoid the influence of extraneous variables.
This allows the researcher to establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
These controlled experiments are replicable, and the data obtained is objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gives psychology more credibility.
Operational definitions
Cognitive psychologists develop operational definitions to study mental processes scientifically.
These definitions specify how abstract concepts, such as attention or memory, can be measured and quantified (e.g., verbal protocols of thinking aloud). This allows for reliable and replicable research findings.
Falsifiability
Falsifiability in psychology refers to the ability to disprove a theory or hypothesis through empirical observation or experimentation. If a claim is not falsifiable, it is considered unscientific.
Cognitive psychologists aim to develop falsifiable theories and models, meaning they can be tested and potentially disproven by empirical evidence.
This commitment to falsifiability helps to distinguish scientific theories from pseudoscientific or unfalsifiable claims.
Empirical evidence
Cognitive psychologists rely on empirical evidence to support their theories and models.
They collect data through various methods, such as experiments, observations, and questionnaires, to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about mental processes.
Cognitive psychologists assume that mental processes are not random but are organized and structured in specific ways. They seek to identify the underlying cognitive structures and processes that enable people to perceive, remember, and think.
Cognitive psychologists have made significant contributions to our understanding of mental processes and have developed various theories and models, such as the multi-store model of memory, the working memory model, and the dual-process theory of thinking.
Humans are information processors:
The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.
The information processing approach is based on several assumptions, including:
- Information is processed by a series of systems: The information processing approach proposes that a series of cognitive systems, such as attention, perception, and memory, process information from the environment. Each system plays a specific role in processing the information and passing it along to the next stage.
- Processing systems transform information: As information passes through these cognitive systems, it is transformed or modified in systematic ways. For example, incoming sensory information may be filtered by attention, encoded into memory, or used to update existing knowledge structures.
- Research aims to specify underlying processes and structures: The primary goal of research within the information processing approach is to identify, describe, and understand the specific cognitive processes and mental structures that underlie various aspects of cognitive performance, such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
- Human information processing resembles computer processing: The information processing approach draws an analogy between human cognition and computer processing. Just as computers take in information, process it according to specific algorithms, and produce outputs, the human mind is thought to engage in similar processes of input, processing, and output.
Computer-Mind Analogy
The computer-brain metaphor, or the information processing approach, is a significant concept in cognitive psychology that likens the human brain’s functioning to that of a computer.
This metaphor suggests that the brain, like a computer, processes information through a series of linear steps, including input, storage, processing, and output.
According to this assumption, when we interact with the environment, we take in information through our senses (input).
This information is then processed by various cognitive systems, such as perception, attention, and memory. These systems work together to make sense of the input, organize it, and store it for later use.
During the processing stage, the mind performs operations on the information, such as encoding, transforming, and combining it with previously stored knowledge. This processing can involve various cognitive processes, such as thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
The processed information can then be used to generate outputs, such as actions, decisions, or new ideas. These outputs are based on the information that has been processed and the individual’s goals and motivations.
This has led to models showing information flowing through the cognitive system, such as the multi-store memory model.
The information processing approach also assumes that the mind has a limited capacity for processing information, similar to a computer’s memory and processing limitations.
This means that humans can only attend to and process a certain amount of information at a given time, and that cognitive processes can be slowed down or impaired when the mind is overloaded.
The Role of Schemas
A schema is a “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organize and interpret information. It is based on previous experience.
Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences shape their mental processes. They investigate how these factors influence perception, attention, memory, and thinking.
Schemas help us interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, preventing us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our environment.
Schemas can often affect cognitive processing (a mental framework of beliefs and expectations developed from experience). As people age, they become more detailed and sophisticated.
However, it can also lead to distortion of this information as we select and interpret environmental stimuli using schemas that might not be relevant.
This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.
Weaknesses
1. Behaviorist Critique
B.F. Skinner criticizes the cognitive approach. He believes that only external stimulus-response behavior should be studied, as this can be scientifically measured.
Therefore, mediation processes (between stimulus and response) do not exist as they cannot be seen and measured.
Behaviorism assumes that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and are not born with cognitive functions like schemas, memory or perception.
Due to its subjective and unscientific nature, Skinner continues to find problems with cognitive research methods, namely introspection (as used by Wilhelm Wundt).
2. Complexity of mental experiences
Mental processes are highly complex and multifaceted, involving a wide range of cognitive, affective, and motivational factors that interact in intricate ways.
The complexity of mental experiences makes it difficult to isolate and study specific mental processes in a controlled manner.
Mental processes are often influenced by individual differences, such as personality, culture, and past experiences, which can introduce variability and confounds in research.
3. Experimental Methods
While controlled experiments are the gold standard in cognitive psychology research, they may not always capture real-world mental processes’ complexity and ecological validity.
Some mental processes, such as creativity or decision-making in complex situations, may be difficult to study in laboratory settings.
Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers believes that using laboratory experiments by cognitive psychology has low ecological validity and creates an artificial environment due to the control over variables.
Rogers emphasizes a more holistic approach to understanding behavior.
The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method that is controlled and replicable, so the results are reliable.
However, experiments lack ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and environment, so they might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday lives.
For example, Baddeley (1966) used lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM.
However, these words had no meaning to the participants, so the way they used their memory in this task was probably very different from what they would have done if the words had meaning for them.
This is a weakness, as the theories might not explain how memory works outside the laboratory.
4. Computer Analogy
The information processing paradigm of cognitive psychology views the minds in terms of a computer when processing information.
However, although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, and the use of a central processor), the computer analogy has been criticized.
For example, the human mind is characterized by consciousness, subjective experience, and self-awareness, which are not present in computers.
Computers do not have feelings, emotions, or a sense of self, which play crucial roles in human cognition and behavior.
The brain-computer metaphor is often used implicitly in neuroscience literature through terms like “sensory computation,” “algorithms,” and “neural codes.” However, it is difficult to identify these concepts in the actual brain.
5. Reductionist
The cognitive approach is reductionist as it does not consider emotions and motivation, which influence the processing of information and memory. For example, according to the Yerkes-Dodson law, anxiety can influence our memory.
Such machine reductionism (simplicity) ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
Early theories of cognitive approach did not always recognize physical (biological psychology) and environmental (behaviorist approach) factors in determining behavior.
However, it’s important to note that modern cognitive psychology has evolved to incorporate a more holistic understanding of human cognition and behavior.
Strengths
1. Importance of cognitive factors versus external events
Cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of internal cognitive processes in shaping emotional experiences, rather than solely focusing on external events.
Beck’s cognitive theory suggests that it is not the external events themselves that lead to depression, but rather the way an individual interprets and processes those events through their negative schemas.
This highlights the importance of addressing cognitive factors in the treatment of depression and other mental health issues.
Social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelly, 1959) emphasizes that relationships are formed through internal mental processes, such as decision-making, rather than solely based on external factors.
The computer analogy can be applied to this concept, where individuals observe behaviors (input), process the costs and benefits (processing), and then make a decision about the relationship (output).
2. Interdisciplinary approach
While early cognitive psychology may have neglected physical and environmental factors, contemporary cognitive psychology has increasingly integrated insights from other approaches.
Cognitive psychology draws on methods and findings from other scientific disciplines, such as neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics, to inform their understanding of mental processes.
This interdisciplinary approach strengthens the scientific basis of cognitive psychology.
Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence (AI).
3. Real World Applications
Another strength is that the research conducted in this area of psychology very often has applications in the real world.
By highlighting the importance of cognitive processing, the cognitive approach can explain mental disorders such as depression.
Beck’s cognitive theory of depression argues that negative schemas about the self, the world, and the future are central to the development and maintenance of depression.
These negative schemas lead to biased processing of information, selective attention to negative aspects of experience, and distorted interpretations of events, which perpetuate the depressive state.
Therapy
By identifying the role of cognitive processes in mental disorders, cognitive psychology has informed the development of targeted interventions.
Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to modify the maladaptive thought patterns and beliefs that underlie emotional distress, helping individuals to develop more balanced and adaptive ways of thinking.
CBT’s basis is to change how people process their thoughts to make them more rational or positive.
Through techniques such as cognitive restructuring, behavioral experiments, and guided discovery, CBT helps individuals to challenge and change their negative schemas, leading to improvements in mood and functioning.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been very effective in treating depression (Hollon & Beck, 1994), and moderately effective for anxiety problems (Beck, 1993).
Issues and Debates
Free will vs. Determinism
The cognitive approach’s position is unclear. It argues that cognitive processes are influenced by experiences and schemas, which implies a degree of determinism.
On the other hand, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) operates on the premise that individuals can change their thought patterns, suggesting a capacity for free will.
Nature vs. Nurture
The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate, acknowledging the influence of both nature and nurture on cognitive processes.
It recognizes that while some cognitive abilities, such as language acquisition, may have an innate component (nature), experiences and learning (nurture) also shape the way information is processed.
Holism vs. Reductionism
The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist in its methodology, as it often studies cognitive processes in isolation.
For example, researchers may focus on memory processes without considering the influence of other cognitive functions or environmental factors.
While this approach allows for more controlled study, it may lack ecological validity, as in real life, cognitive processes typically interact and function simultaneously.
Idiographic vs. Nomothetic
The cognitive approach is primarily nomothetic, as it seeks to establish general principles and theories of information processing that apply to all individuals.
It aims to identify universal patterns and mechanisms of cognition rather than focusing on individual differences.
History of Cognitive Psychology
- Wolfgang Köhler (1925) – Köhler’s book “The Mentality of Apes” challenged the behaviorist view by suggesting that animals could display insightful behavior, leading to the development of Gestalt psychology.
- Norbert Wiener (1948) – Wiener’s book “Cybernetics” introduced concepts such as input and output, which influenced the development of information processing models in cognitive psychology.
- Edward Tolman (1948) – Tolman’s work on cognitive maps in rats demonstrated that animals have an internal representation of their environment, challenging the behaviorist view.
- George Miller (1956) – Miller’s paper “The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2” proposed that short-term memory has a limited capacity of around seven chunks of information, which became a foundational concept in cognitive psychology.
- Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon (1972) – Newell and Simon developed the General Problem Solver, a computer program that simulated human problem-solving, contributing to the growth of artificial intelligence and cognitive modeling.
- George Miller and Jerome Bruner (1960) – Miller and Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard, which played a significant role in the development of cognitive psychology as a distinct field.
- Ulric Neisser (1967) – Neisser’s book “Cognitive Psychology” formally established cognitive psychology as a separate area of study, focusing on mental processes such as perception, memory, and thinking.
- Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) – Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the Multi-Store Model of memory, which divided memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term stores, becoming a key model in the study of memory.
- Eleanor Rosch’s (1970s) research on natural categories and prototypes, which influenced the study of concept formation and categorization.
- Endel Tulving’s (1972) distinction between episodic and semantic memory, which further developed the understanding of long-term memory.
- Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) proposal of the Working Memory Model, which expanded on the concept of short-term memory and introduced the idea of a central executive.
- Marvin Minsky’s (1975) framework of frames in artificial intelligence, which influenced the understanding of knowledge representation in cognitive psychology.
- David Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony’s (1977) work on schema theory, which described how knowledge is organized and used for understanding and remembering information.
- Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman’s (1970s-80s) research on heuristics and biases in decision making, which led to the development of behavioral economics and the study of judgment and decision-making.
- David Marr’s (1982) computational theory of vision, which provided a framework for understanding visual perception and influenced the field of computational cognitive science.
- The development of connectionism and parallel distributed processing (PDP) models in the 1980s, which provided an alternative to traditional symbolic models of cognitive processes.
- Noam Chomsky’s (1980s) theory of Universal Grammar and the language acquisition device, which influenced the study of language and cognitive development.
- The emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the 1990s, which combined techniques from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and computer science to study the neural basis of cognitive processes.
References
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Further Reading
